After studying the /ʌ/ phoneme in my previous post Uh... But... What?, this post will help you to create distinction between that sound and the /ɑ/ phoneme. The /ɑ/ phoneme is produced in the back of the mouth and by opening the mouth wide with the tongue down. It's the "ah" sound doctors ask you to make before they stick that uncomfortable wooden paddle on your tongue to have a look-see inside.

The /ʌ/ sound, on the other hand, is a lazy, relaxed grunt-like sound produced in the center of the mouth with the mouth only partially open. I call it the caveman sound because I believe it could be the first sound man ever made. It will also likely be the last. By the way, it's basically the same as the English schwa sound /ə/, the difference being that /ʌ/ is stressed and /ə/ is unstressed.

Below is a list of words with these sounds. Some of these are near minimal pairs as they differ in more than one way. But most are true minimal pairs. The last one with "z" is the first syllable of some guy's last name.

Many speech language pathologists (SLPs) and accent reduction specialists will try to tell you that learning the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) isn't important. They do this for one reason only - to sell their services more easily. These accent reduction "experts" know that most people don't want to learn what seem like esoteric symbols, and that English learners just want to reduce their accent to be more easily understood.

When I was hired by an accent modification company based in New York, I was specifically told not to use the term "phoneme," because it was considered too technical. A phoneme is just a term for the smallest unit of speech in a language. Each phoneme has a specific symbol that represents that sound in the International Phonetic Alphabet. Any respectable accent reduction coach will not only know the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), at least as it pertains to the English language, but will also end up teaching the phonemes of English anyway. There's really no way around it because, let's face it, written English is a mess.

There are some rules for knowing how to pronounce a given word in English, but they are few and the ones that do exist have many exceptions. English also doesn't use accents or any diacritic symbols to help the reader pronounce words easily. All of this leads to the necessity of using phonetics to make English pronunciation clearer to the learner. And, by the way, the same phonetic symbols serve for any language - not just English.

Of course, native speakers don't require learning phonetic symbols to learn English. But since it's their first language, there's no risk of confusing the sounds with another language. When learning a foreign language, we are often taught using the written word. While it is not necessary, nor perhaps even recommended to learn English this way, it is nevertheless important to most people to know how to read English as well as speak it.

If you peruse any university foreign language program, a course teaching the phonetics of the language will most certainly be listed as part of the curriculum. When I was working on my BA in Spanish, I had an entire semester-long course in Spanish phonetics - and Spanish is largely a phonetically-written language anyway! That class, however, was extremely important to my understanding of Spanish pronunciation and I'm grateful that it was required for the major. When I later moved on to learning Portuguese, the first thing I did was to buy a dictionary and study the page on Brazilian Portuguese phonetics. This gave me a jump start on learning the language and greatly reduced the transition time from Spanish to Portuguese.

My last point regarding this topic of learning English phonetics is this: How hard is it really to learn a dozen or so phonetic symbols if it means clearing up many questions about English pronunciation? After all, you have already come this far with your English skills. Additionally, you've probably studied a great deal to be good at your profession. That was likely much more difficult.

So join me for a 12-week accent modification course and I'll make the experience as painless as possible. Who knows? You may even find learn English phonetics enjoyable. 

The verb "to sleep" in English works differently than it does in many languages. In English, it refers to the process of sleeping, not to the moment that a person begins to sleep.

So, if wanting to express the time that I start sleeping, I would say:

• I go to sleep at 11 pm every day.

OR

• I go to bed at 11 pm every day.

You cannot say:

• I sleep at 11 pm every day. - WRONG

The same principle applies in the past tense:

• Last night, we went to sleep at midnight.
• Yesterday, the kids went to sleep late.

You cannot say:

• Last night, we slept at midnight. - WRONG
• Yesterday, the kids slept late. - WRONG - because it changes the meaning (i.e. The kids stayed in bed later than normal in the morning.)

It's also possible to express the moment in which sleep begins by using the expression "to fall asleep" (note the use of the adjective asleep). While "go to sleep" and "go to bed" are more general and intentional in nature, "fall asleep" can be more accidental or involuntary, but can also be used to describe any transition into a sleep state.

• I always fall asleep during boring movies.
• If Jen falls asleep one more time at her desk, her boss is going to fire her.

In the past tense:

• The baby fell asleep in her arms.
• Tim fell asleep at the wheel and crashed his car.

If wanting to express the amount of time that one spends sleeping, then English works as follows:

• The kids sleep for a half-hour after lunch every day.
• She sleeps 7 hours a day on weekdays.

And in the past tense:

• I slept for an hour on the bus.
• You slept very little last night.

The same is true for the quality of sleep:

• On a train, she sleeps like a baby.
• I haven't slept well this week.

Knowing this will hopefully allow you to sleep better tonight  :-)

One of the most important keys to learning a foreign language in a reasonable amount of time is to immediately accept the language and its form of expression. This is especially true of English, as there are many aspects of the language that don't make logical sense. 

Some students understand this idea intuitively. For those who don't, I have a crucial message: Don't fight the language! It took centuries for the language to develop and it's not going to change just because you feel more comfortable expressing something in a way that is more similar to your native tongue.

So if you hear a native speaker say something a certain way, assume that that is the only way to express it until you hear otherwise from another native speaker. For instance, if a native speaker says she's sitting and in your language it's different, e.g. she's seated (está sentada), assume that in all cases in English we would express the idea using the present participle sitting of the verb to sit and not the past participle seated of the verb to seat. But if you board a plane and the flight attendant says all passengers must be seated, then you'll know that it is possible to use the past participle of seat in English and that it really just depends on the context - in this case a more formal one.

I always tell students that language is not like mathematics. Language is rarely 100% logical. It's often messy; sometimes flexible, sometimes not. At the end of the day, it is what it is. And that goes not only for semantics, but also for syntax, grammar and phonology. The goal should be to accept it readily and repeat it. Use newly acquired expressions frequently at first, just as a parrot would repeat phrases it learns, and then remain open and ready for the next expression to come your way.

If a native speaker says he's 64, that means he's 64 years old. Note that the verb to be is used to express someone's age. Your language may use another verb, such as have. Don't force your language onto English. If you say he has 64 years, a literal translation from many Latin-based languages, you're going to sound very odd and may not be understood. By the way, did you catch the other detail? In English, it is not necessary to say years to express someone's age. But if you do, you need to say years old, not simply years. There's a prime example of staying open and attentive to every detail.

While it's important to pay attention to the details, there simply isn't enough time to question every little detail. When students get hung up on the way the foreign language expresses something, they miss the next opportunity to learn more of the language. So, stay open, listen carefully and be a parrot! That's how successful language learners do it.

It helps to think of language as short segments or phrases, not so much individual words. Treat these phrases like gold nuggets that you mine from your foreign-language conversational partner. Each is precious and should be stowed away to be used later; hopefully soon afterward, so that you can solidify it in your memory.

When learning English, in particular, watch for how the verbs are used with particles. These particles look like prepositions, but they're not. They are there to transform the meaning of the main verb. We call these phrasal verbs, or two-part or three-part verbs. So, for example, while the verb work may mean trabalhar or funcionar in Portuguese, the verb work out would mean malhar or resolver, depending on the context. And, speaking of context, always learn a new word or phrase noting the context in which it was used. 

The meaning of a word in your native language often does not have an exact equivalent in the foreign language. Sound in English could mean som in Portuguese, but it could also mean sólido, seguro or íntegro, as in this building in sound. While welcome means bem-vindo, the expression you're welcome would mean de nada. If you analyze the word welcome, you see that it is a combination of well and come, very similar to bem-vindo. When we say you're welcome, what we are really saying is something like fica à vontade, which is what we use to say de nada, por nada or não há de quê.  To take all this in, your mind needs to remain flexible.

If thinking in the above way helps you to remember an expression, great. Use it. But often times, there is no way to make any sort of connection in meaning. When a salesperson in a store in Brazil greets me with pois não?, I know he/she means may I help you, but there's no way to make sense of the expression pois não?, so I just remember it as is, without questioning it any further. Then, most importantly, I use it in the same way and context that I heard it.

Watch out for false cognates - words derived from the same root but whose meanings have diverged. Take Portuguese and Spanish, for example - two languages that are quite similar from an etymological standpoint. The word propina exists in both languages, but it is now a false cognate. Many centuries ago, it likely had the same meaning when it was introduced by the Romans or Greeks (the exact origin doesn't matter). But over time, its usage changed to the point where now una propina in Spanish means uma gorjeta in Portuguese and uma propina in Portuguese means una coima in Spanish. Try explaining that to the police in a sticky situation! 

The creation of new vocabulary, and the change in meaning of vocabulary and phrases between languages that historically have a common root, happens in part as a result of the cultural needs of the population that uses the language. Eskimos, for instance, have numerous ways to express different types of ice. They need to be able to express ice in its various forms in order to survive in that climate. But it goes beyond mere survival. When you see something every day, you begin to notice the intricacies of it and that leads to the desire to more accurately define and express it. For most of us who live in warmer climes, a handful of words to describe ice suffices. But for the Inuit of Canada, who appreciate ice to a much larger degree than we do, discerning the many differences in the quality of ice has led to the creation of more than 53 words for it. And in the northern parts of Scandinavia and Russia, the Sami people use around 180 words related to ice and snow!

You can think of the meaning of words as overlapping circles. In the image that follows, each circle represents the meaning of one word. The space in between the circles represents an aspect of reality that has not been defined by the language. Interestingly enough, when a language doesn't define something, the undefined reality often goes unperceived by the speaker of that language. 

Of all the techniques and methodology I've used over my career teaching English as a second language, by far the most effective for students to practice on their own is the "shadowing" technique. It brings together nearly all of the elements required to speak a foreign language - grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation and prosody, all rolled into one simple and enjoyable exercise. 

Because of the repetitive nature of the exercise and use of the faculties of hearing, mental processing and production of sound through the mouth, I believe its effectiveness is due to how it simulates the way children learn their first language. By using this technique, you'll gain an intuitive sense for what is grammatically and semantically correct in the language. So, you know those problematic prepositions that keep you up at night? You won't have to memorize how they are used in each individual case because, if you practice the shadowing technique on a regular basis, over time, they will come to you more naturally.

This technique is also a great way to warm up in the foreign language before having to use it during the day. Here's how it works:

1. You find written material that has accompanying audio recorded by a native speaker. This can be a book, but I prefer using articles because they're shorter, varied and use more everyday language. My favorite site for articles with audio is VOA Learning English for slow pronunciation and VOA Connect for natural pronunciation. In addition to learning English, you can keep abreast of what's happening in the world (caution: potential U.S. propaganda and bias ;-)).
2. The first time through, I recommend listening to the article, focusing on the sounds, rhythm and intonation without reading it.
3. Then listen to the audio again while silently reading along just once. Focus on the reader's pronunciation, intonation, rhythm and stress.
4. Listen again, this time reading out loud a few milliseconds behind the reader. This is the "shadowing" and reason for the technique's name. Repeat this procedure two more times.
5. You can also try progressively closing the gap between you and the reader until you are reading in unison. While in unison with the reader, you'll be better able to hear any tonal and stress differences between your speech and that of the reader. Musicians learn to play songs by ear in much the same way. 
6. Another way to use the audio is to stop it after each sentence or thought group and repeat what you hear out loud with the same rhythm, stress and intonation.

Try to imitate or "parrot" the reader the best you can. Find your inner actor, as this is part of learning a new language - assuming a different role. Experiment boldly and enjoy the new role.

If you practice this technique for 15 minutes a day, you'll be well on your way to mastering English, and with good pronunciation!

Ah… the dreaded Present Perfect. It is the abacaxi of every Portuguese speaker learning English. I’ve seen many good explanations of its use, but textbooks can’t really offer a comparative analysis, as I will do here between English, Spanish and Portuguese, so they just explain it in English and hope that learners make the temporal leap themselves.

Well, the differences between Portuguese and English on this topic eluded me for over 5 years while living in Brazil – probably because, like most people who learn Spanish first, I wrongly believed that Portuguese, being a Latin-based language, would have the same grammar as Spanish. Only after hearing the same verb construction used repeatedly to convey a different temporal idea did I finally realize that I was witnessing a difference in grammar between the languages and not a distortion in the space-time continuum.

The Present Perfect is perhaps “perfect” for Spanish speakers learning English; however, it is anything but perfect for Portuguese speakers. The reason is that, in Spanish, the same verb construction transmits the same idea of time as it does in English. But in Portuguese it doesn’t. Making matters worse is that the same construction exists in Portuguese but transmits a different idea of time. Because of this grammatical mess, I decided to write this blog entry so that you don’t need to spend the next 5 years unraveling this mystery on your own.

In English and Spanish, the Present Perfect is used to refer to a non-specific action in the past which is relevant in the present, hence the name. If I ask the question, “Have you eaten breakfast?” it’s because I want to know if you are hungry now, so that I might then prepare breakfast for you or, more likely, inform you where you can find breakfast yourself. The point is that there’s still time to eat breakfast because the clock hasn’t yet struck noon.

This same question in Spanish would have the same construction of the auxiliary verb have plus the past participle of the verb you wish to use.

have + past participle = haber + participio pasado
“¿Has desayunado?”

In Portuguese, however, we would have to say, “(Você) já tomou café da manhã? because in Portuguese, in order to transmit the same idea of time, one needs to use the Preterite (Simple Past) with the adverb já before it. Já means already.

And the translation for “I haven’t eaten breakfast” would be: “(Eu) não tomei café da manhã ainda.” Ainda means still or yet.

While in Spanish it would be “(Yo) no he desayunado” - just as it is in English.

What we see in Portuguese is the simple past tense with the addition of words in the sentence to help the listener understand the verb tense. So, later in the day (after noon), if one asks, “Did you eat breakfast?” we would simply not add those additional words to the sentence in Portuguese.

“(Você) tomou café da manhã?” without the já.

This simple addition of já in an affirmative sentence or question, and ainda in a negative sentence or question accounts for 94.78% of all occurrences that translate to the present perfect in English. (Note: I have counted every instance over a 15-year span while living in Brazil.)

For the other roughly 5% percent, you’ll learn with time to gain an intuitive sense. Better yet, learn everything by extensive reading, listening and repetition, and you won’t need to worry about grammar at all because you’ll know intuitively what sounds right and what sounds wrong.

For those who like grammar, another way to approach the present perfect for Portuguese speakers is to think of it as the non-specific past. What’s important is the experience, not the specifics of time or space. For example, I could say, “Have you seen the movie Inception?”

The answer I’m looking for is a simple yes or no, i.e. have you experienced it? So, first you answer with that. Then, if you wish, you can use the simple past to give specific information.

“Yes, I have. I saw it a decade ago. You don’t get out much do you, teacher?” Or,
“No, I haven’t. Is it worth watching?”

On a timeline, 
                                          past                                                       present                       future
<---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------> (Timeline)

we could represent the Present Perfect as a non-specific event happening at any time up to the present,
<-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------->| (Present Perfect)

whereas the Simple Past would be a specific point in the past, as shown by the X.
<-----------------------X------------------------------------------------------------->| (Simple Past)

Note that you cannot use the Present Perfect with specific time expressions such as: yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when I lived in Canada, etc. We can use the Present Perfect with non-specific expressions such as: ever, never, once, many times, several times, before, so far, already, yet, etc.

The distinction between the present perfect and the simple past is sometimes not so clear, especially when the above expressions are not included. Also, Americans will tend to be more relaxed than the British when choosing between them.

While a British teacher, upon seeing you in class, may always ask, “Have you done your homework?” an American teacher might ask, “Did you do your homework?” or “Have you done your homework?” because in this instance, the difference is not great.

But there are instances where the difference is significant and both the British and Americans will always use the Present Perfect, such as: “Have you met Bob, the English teacher?”

You could only say, “Did you meet Bob, the English teacher?” if you were referring implicitly to a specific time or place, such as when you were at school or last week. The context would need to be created first.

Now, where things get a bit wacky is when we analyze the same verb construction of have + past participle in Portuguese, or ter/haver + particípio passado. The construction is the same but the meaning is different. (Note: As an auxiliary verb, haver is only used by Brazilians with a penchant for Machado de Assis.)

If I say “Tenho comido muito” in Portuguese, what I’m really saying is “I’ve been eating a lot.” This is the Present Perfect Continuous in English and requires the use of been as a fixed element in the construction have + been + gerund. In Portuguese, a person could also express the same idea by saying, “Venho comendo muito,” which is a bit easier to wrap your head around (understand) because you hear the continuous action of the verb comendo.

The Present Perfect Continuous can be represented as an action that begins at some non-specific point in the past, continues up to the present and will likely continue into the future.

                                          past                                                       present                       future
<---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------>

By now, you may be sympathizing with me regarding how long it took to realize the difference. Where Spanish and Portuguese in the past parted ways grammatically is beyond me. Maybe a historical linguist could shed some light on this.

The challenge for Portuguese speakers is to disassociate the use of the construction have + past participle from the same construction ter/haver + particípio passado in Portuguese, because the meanings are not the same. Additionally, you’ll need to make the rather incongruent connection between the Present Perfect Continuous, have + been + past participle, and ter/haver + particípio passado in Portuguese.

Please comment below (linguists and non-linguists alike) and check out other tips on learning English.

The phoneme /ʌ/ is sometimes tricky for ESL students. I call it the caveman phoneme because it strikes me as a sound early man could have made when he emerged from the caves and began uttering his first words. It's a lazy sound, requiring little effort and seeming to originate from below, as if from the belly. It's the sound native English speakers make when pausing to think about what they're going to say next.

There is no one letter to represent this sound, so it is often mispronounced by newcomers to the English language because they tend to focus too much on the written word instead of the sound. When learning new vocabulary in English, always focus more ​on the sound of the word rather than the way it is written. 

I've found that the smallest words present the most problems and are often overlooked. So let's begin with them. Note the various ways the words are spelled but phonetically still have the /ʌ/ sound.

Keep it simple! One of the best resources for studying English alone is VOA English. There are many interesting articles with audio of native speakers reading the texts slowly.

With a good dictionary like www.wordreference.com, this becomes an excellent exercise for learning English.

The next best thing to speaking with a real person is to use entertainment in small doses. A half-hour TV program is loaded with important vocabulary, idiomatic phrases, pronunciation and visual context. It's also entertaining, which makes it fun to learn.

For intermediate to advanced English learners; choose a TV series that you enjoy watching, preferably drama, and focus on an actor or actress that you would like to emulate. You should listen in English and read the subtitles in English, too. They probably won't match, but that's okay; you'll learn two ways to express the same idea. You'll need a good dictionary for this exercise. I recommend wordreference.com.

Watch each episode 3 times: the first time watching continuously to understand the context, the second time stopping often to note down new vocabulary and idiomatic phrases and the third time watching while repeating the phrases aloud. It's important to focus on learning phrases and not individual words.

Try to use this new vocabulary as soon as possible by telling someone else what happens in the episode. If you can't find someone to tell, this is where a private English teacher can be helpful. He or she will not only listen, but will listen carefully and correct you.